Identifying data through a cryptographic digest and representation information so retrieved bytes can be checked independently of their storage location.

Systems that distribute responsibility for retaining and retrieving data across operators, using protocols, replication and sometimes economic incentives rather than assuming one permanent host.

A distributed lookup system that assigns responsibility for keys across participating nodes and routes requests to the responsible node.

A peer-to-peer protocol for finding and exchanging content-addressed data; a content identifier alone does not promise continued hosting.

A cryptographic storage-auditing protocol whose security definition connects a prover's ability to answer challenges with the ability to recover the stored data.